Philosophy Archives - DU Times

DEBATE SURROUNDING SURROGACY

Chaitanya Sharma — Sat, 15 Jun 2024 07:13:39 +0000

INTRODUCTION:
In surrogacy, a woman is artificially inseminated with a man‘s sperm. The woman not only bears his child in her womb but later on after the birth of the child also hands over that child to the man and his wife to be brought up as their child. In this method, the egg and sperm are united in a culture dish, where the egg is fertilized and the resulting embryo is implanted in the woman‘s uterus. Surrogate parenting is a scientific extension of the natural ability to reproduce. Surrogacy has become an attractive alternative for young couples to overcome the problems of adopting children and thereby to reduce high infertility rate

MAIN BODY:
Surrogacy is often thought to be a ‘treatment’ option for the infertile or an alternative to adoption, and so to be celebrated in fulfilling people’s desires to be parents. However, surrogacy also brings a wealth of more complex ethical issues around gender, labor, payment, exploitation and inequality. One of the major concerns that raise the issue of human rights is that of commoditization of children in commercial surrogacy because it places the reproductive capacity of the woman in the market place. This is because the removal of the act of childbearing from the idea of motherhood treats women as “objects of reproductive exchange” by effectively “renting” wombs and devaluing childbearing.

Instances of exploitation of surrogates are more in case of international commercial surrogacy where surrogates are from poor background and are often forced by their in-laws to consent to such procedure that can earn the livelihood for the whole family. This raises the question of whether they are really exercising free choice in the matter, or whether a lack of economic alternatives gives surrogates no other feasible option. Their lack of legal or medical knowledge and the fact they are being offered sums of money which to them seem huge, make it difficult for surrogates to have equal bargaining power against the comparatively wealthy and powerful clinics and commissioning parents they contract with.

According to the opinions opposite to the surrogate maternity practices, it means “selling the female body”. The surrogacy is compared to the prostitution in the literature, whereby the women are claimed to sell their uteri, and forgive the control of their own bodies. The opponents of the surrogate maternity and the contract of surrogacy claim that such practices make the children a product that could be purchased and sold. Furthermore, the child is treated as a tool to satisfy the needs of the other people, so that the child rights are infringed.

the intended mother’s risk of carrying a pregnancy to term. This is especially important if the intended mother is at a more advanced maternal age or she has underlying medical problems that could negatively affect her pregnancy, such as diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, kidney or liver disease, and autoimmune conditions, among others. These conditions can put the baby at risk as well, so using a surrogate would eliminate the risks posed by these medical problems. Most women choose surrogacy due to either having a medical condition that would put them at risk if they were to carry a pregnancy or because they are in an advanced maternal age. But for whatever reason a woman chooses surrogacy, this still means she can go about her life without having to accommodate being pregnant, such as the normal emotional stressors that occur with pregnancy as well as the often uncomfortable physical changes or unpredictable effects on future health. There are no rights or wrongs involved in any of the various reasons a woman might consider using a surrogate to have a baby. A surrogate will not have to endure any financial difficulties for her pregnancy, as the intended parents will pay for all of her pregnancy-related costs (including maternity clothes, doctor’s care and more).

CONCLUSION:
In more recent years, surrogate pregnancy has ignited a maelstrom of controversy in which scholars, politicians, judges, scientists, and religious authorities debate the definition of family and kinship. Like adoption, surrogate pregnancy is not an isolated phenomenon but rather it overlaps with a myriad of other social issues, such as wealth distribution, race and color-blindness, gender equality, and children‘s rights, all of which come into play when defining family bonds and relationships.It has been described as ―gift of love or ―gift of life as well as termed as ―rent a womb‖ depending on the particular viewpoint adopted towards it. Regardless of its benefits, surrogacy has also generated considerable moral and ethical debate.Surrogacy inherently transforms a woman’s body into a ‘bread oven’, a commodity, to be used and cared for while it is useful, and to be forgotten once the “contract” is fulfilled. Due to the uncertainty prevailing over the various issues surrounding surrogacy, it is considered as an ethical mine-field.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrogacy

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PAUL VALERY ON ART

Chaitanya Sharma — Sat, 15 Jun 2024 07:00:54 +0000

INTRODUCTION:
“How do we know that an object is a work of art, or that a system of acts is performed with a view to art?”
Paul Valery was a French philosopher and in the essay idea of art, he tries to investigate art, its nature and characteristics. The meaning of art, its quality or value changes, depending on what type of artist is and who is the artist. The idea of art is as follows:

MAIN BODY:
He states that the ways of doing that involves voluntary actions or actions initiated by the will we understand that it is a self willed Exercise and not forced upon us by any external pressure or force. We find that art is in everything. There is an artistic way of walking, breathing and even in silence. The artist is created by an artist and there are two characteristics surf facing the idea of artist, the first is, Native aptitude, which is also called as his or her inalienable Personal gift, and the second is what he or she has learnt or required through experience, which can be put to words and can be forwarded to the succeeding generations that may be coming.

Hence, Paul says that art can be learnt but not whole art. This difference is easier to state then to actually discern it in a practical example provided by a particular case. Therefore, it is said that “art is the quality of the way of doing which is due to dismal emotes of operations and hence in the results arising from dissimilarities of agents”. He has provided, even within this difference, the chief attribute of the work of art which can be termed as uselessness.

This could be understood as in the sensations, impressions, and perception when we annul it, We do not dwell in it because it is not playing a major role in our life supporting system. Additionally, it could be arbitrary as well because we receive more sensations that are necessary, and we use extra to fashion something without any specific purpose. Therefore, art is originated in the attempt to endow these sensations with the kind of utility and act with a kind of necessity, however, this utility and necessity is not universal, but they are subjectively understood and personally interpret it, specifically by individual.

Art has prompted significant modification to the conventional understanding of sensitivity. It is believed to be receptive, but it must be given credit for producing. It means that the mental images as well as their effect will have same contrast and symmetry, re relationships and more importantly, the same system of endlessly repeated regeneration that we have seen particularly in the specialized sensibilities. He has provided a different idea as well, which talks about the man’s ability to manipulate the matter which has underwent a steady develop, developed more robust and better precisely because of all these advantages that development of art has been made possible.

But Paul has a contrasting perspective on this as well that while art has created a full fledged market presence in this utilitarian capitalistic tradition only to preserve this creative sensibility, but because of technological advancement man’s sensibility may eventually become less flexible due to the growth and intensity of this disorder that these astounding innovations have created within the deep fragments of a person’s thought.

The sensibility, oppressed and opposed to “vacant idleness” because “sensibility in its beginning, beginning and end abhors vacuum” And to overcome absence and have positive effect in life, there is a constant exchange between potentiality and activity within the sensibility. It is not limited to responding. Sometimes it demands and then produces for itself as he believed that art should be an embodiment of beauty, harmony and proportion.

It was his idea that could be defined through the inner quality of the artist, creativity, as well as the perceptions of the viewers. Language and symbolism is important to art because any aesthetic matter must go beyond the surface appearance of things and has to necessarily reveal structures of reality. Symbolism is a way of expressing, revealing and understanding the hidden associations that lie underneath the surface of ordinary perception aspects.

CONCLUSION:
To conclude, we can say that there have been many criticism against this theory that it is abstract very complex and has a challenging language which could be not easily understood by ordinary people, but any contextual discussion does not results in the particular material becoming dull or de philosophy related to knowledge, enhancement and enlightenment, and this theory is precisely doing that higher goal task His idea which revolves around the notion that art is not passive, reproduction of reality, but transformative process that engages sense, emotions, and intellect of the viewer is a very groundbreaking finding in the world of art. As he says that the work of art is never finished, it is nearly abandoned, which suggests that it is continuous without any full stop or commas- It is like the river which keeps on flowing. It gives us inspiration. It stimulates our senses and provides us with an undying sense of aesthetic pleasure, and that is what art is all about.

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REFERENCES:
https://frenchquest.com/2022/02/04/paul-valery-the-idea-of-art/

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ART AND MORALITY WITH RASA: M. HIRIYANNA

Chaitanya Sharma — Sat, 15 Jun 2024 06:55:39 +0000

INTRODUCTION:
Art and morality came into existence because morality assist in changing the state of being from selfish to un selfish attitude, which lapses into art, letting us escape empirical reality by providing ideal world. Art experience is something of a realizable experience and it is a synthesis that is, it is unitive, Synthesis comprehensively, compromising attitude. It is in its unitiveness, That it leads to creativity in Indian context, the same truth which is it is such Anand and comprehensive and absolute Brahman in the normal context it is called as: “Satyam Shivam Sundaram” Let us understand the suspect, which is given by philosopher Mysore Hiriyanna.

MAIN BODY:
Philosophers have stated that the ultimate objective of philosophic quest is not knowledge as much as it has been the ultimate freedom. Indian philosophy is a way of life and thought, and like ethics, aesthetics depend majorly on philosophy, aiming at influencing life. He questions as to whether there has been such a kinder kinship relationship between these two aspects. He raises these questions that it could be the case that while knowing what is good, we have ignored what is beautiful, which means that we have neglected the other Indian aesthetics is based on two main views that are as follows:

The soul doctrine of Upanishadic School, that the ultimate reality is not external, but rather Internal to the man’s own self and world of sensory perception is at best appearance of the ultimate truth- Brahman satya, jagat mithya; The second idea is the ultimate goal has to be realized in this world. This marks the highest conception of the freedom and to live a harmony, peace, and a life in which we do not have to distinguish our interest, but rather expand them, we need to have a passion, less purity, and equal love and respect for all of these things. This is influenced Indian theory of art. But how exactly these two things have casted they are impression on the Indian aesthetic theory that is very interesting. So now let us see that.

He give the example of the first poet in the case of “Bahama, vamana, Dandin” And said that the Pracīn School of poetry dealt with dosas, gunas and alamkaras, They believed in the outward expression of poetry, which is the word, and the sense known as, shabda and artha. We had doasa and Gunas What cons of excellence in poetic art is absence of one and presence of the other.
However, in the case of Navīna school, As they have given the instance of Dhvanyāloka, In this, they believe that, Navīna school Pointed out that whatever in sound sub serves the poetic end in view is called as Gunas And whatever does not is called as doasa; It could be argued that they have expanded the definitions which were provided by Pracīn school.

The artistic expression conveys, imaginative or emotive mode, Art represents the spontaneous expression of responsive mind when it is under the influence of imaginative or emotive mood. It was found that there is a peculiar fitness in the emotive mood to convey tea chains, and also to please. Poetry had two aims. The first one was direct, which is giving of a static pleasure known as sadhyaparanvrtti, And the indirect one is of contributing to the refinement of the character, the case of Emotive mood (Rasa) Was that it can do both of these ideas. Fill the poetry with both of these points equally and express. These two identities sign significantly within any poetic material made this mood more important than vastu or alamkara, This is the major change when we have the Sanskrit point, which states that “rasa Is the Atman of the poetry” This shows the dependence of this idea on the doctrine of Ātman, which has been leveled by upanishadic school.

According to the view of Vedanta, they say that Rasa has the immediate aim of pure delight and enjoyment, but the beauty is disclosed only to the inward ice as it has been contended by Hiriyanna, That “true beauty is neither expressive words nor noble objectively, it can only be realized.” In the case of Sankhya School, we find that the aesthetic attitude is characterized as forgetting because it is an escape from the natural empirical practical world. The difference could be further pointed out that the one reveals best in nature and the other reveals something better than nature.

CONCLUSION:
The poet ideas the object in depicting them, and it is in this process, they are realized and raised to the level of art and acquire aesthetic significance. By providing the example of kalidasa, bhavabhuti’s Uttar-Rama-caritra, Hiriyanna Attempts to say that the emotional situation portrait has been absorbed by this expression, and it has resulted in the aesthetic pleasure of rasa, i.e. hridaya samvada in tanmayibhavana causing in Rasāmubhava. This has completely concluded the Indian aesthetic theory, which has been Postulated by M. Hiriyanna.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art

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THE FEMINIST WAY OF KNOWING THINGS

Chaitanya Sharma — Sat, 15 Jun 2024 06:22:55 +0000

INTRODUCTION:
Elizabeth Anderson has provided the critical lens to investigate traditional epistemological assumptions, it has 2 main points: acknowledges achievement of feminist criticism of science which aims to reveal sexism in theoretical knowledge and defends feminist scientific practices. commitment to liberation of women and nature and souls for all persons, could only be satisfied by the branch of Natural Social epistemology she focuses on “feminist ways of knowing ” in the midst of knowledge generally labeled as “masculine”.

Each sex works in its own appropriate sphere of action, there being a proper subordination, deference and respect of the female to the male in his order, and of the male to the female in her order [emphasis added], so that in any of these communities the zealous advocates of “women’s rights” may here find a practical realization of their ideal.

Naturalized, social epistemology maintains its commitment with modest empiricism and Rational Inquiry. (1) Modest Empiricism – promiscuous in permissible ontology provides defeasible evidence of we have about the would; development of best theories requires • fullest & freest development of imagination but no reason to think that our presently cramped imagination set the world limit of. actual length of Imagination of the world.

The ideas that feminism have raised about the influence of gender on science claim has been unimaginable To dismissing such claims out of hand nothing justifies this; Modest empiricism – purely methodological “doctrine, rejects a priori commitments to what the content of our theories and models must be. (2) Rationality: Reflective endorsement is the only test for whether a consideration counts as a reason for having any attitude, tools, test methodologies of others experience to get the data they cant being, pert their theory underway so that the whole community of inquirers can participate in the scientific investigation.

The idea:
There are 4 categories in naturalized social epistemology: gender structure & labor. symbolism & masculine phenomenon. Androcenterism In different domains of study. Theory & practice. gendered division of theoretical labour:
(a) women’s exclusion documented history of peeping women away from theoretical inquiry. Formal restrictions and barriers Into studying various academic disciplines. Parents socialize women and children do not excel or study masculine subject Maths & natural science.
(b) Discrimination at school level: mixed gender school favoring boys. Boys marginalice girl students by sexual hour. Interruption; detrimental.
(C) Racial preference treatment :- white Boys are given more attention, participation & encouragement than girls in schools, disciplinary studies.
(d) sexual harassment & exclusion :- Male students having been more supporting and being encouraged relatively more than women students’ If they clear college degree spaces- faculty academic ambition less, sexual harassment to them, then they are not treated equally with men in academic institutions.

The struggle for women’s rights, and the task of creating a new United Nations, able to promote peace and the values which nurture and sustain it, are one and the same. Today – more than ever – the cause of women is the cause of all humanity.

low pay scale & unemployment :- low pay scale, starting salary law position, less Research support, lower Ranks & positions higher unemployment pate 2 gender symbolism- The hierarchy of knowledge can be seen in following forms:- (i) Masculine feminine dichotomy:- there are conceptual dichotomies that subjective / objective model objective and subjective culture/ nature; Reason / emotion mind body; (i) Distortion by sexist imagery. :- These scandalous dichotomies formed conceptions of knowledge was shaped sexist view between men & women. (ii) conception of prestige & honor :- gender symbolism appears on 2 levels of knowledge practices, Authorities and prestige next sexism in scientific theory eg(2) Ideological of paternal justifications of the structures men are disqualified but not for women eg- IQ Test: higher score on Scientific IQ Test Androcentricism. for women than men marks Results distorted their -Man Is taken to be norm Of humanness.

CONCLUSION:
Male Monopoly on sci- matters. Women experiences & point of view to shape perspectives from moving their own perspectives/ assertions considered as Problematic. Women has been subservient to male and auxiliary; superiority / Inferiority active 4 life and passive death- women always characterized as “others”; Inferior Androcentrism gender central inadequate . (1) Impersonal & The practical Scientific knowledge (i) tailored to reeds theocratical knowledge tailored to the needs of men as has been contended by feminist epistemologists. “Masculine” & prohibited women from practicing or perusing these courses BECAUSE, It would divert their vital energies from their reproductive power Capacities by- Collins 1990 and by Hubbard 1990.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism

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KNOWLEDGE TRADITION IN INDIAN THOUGHT

Chaitanya Sharma — Sat, 15 Jun 2024 06:12:42 +0000

INTRODUCTION:
Sabda in Mimamsa and Advaita System Sabda- pramāna are given the greatest importance in Mimamsa. Sabara defines testimony as the knowledge of an object which is not present to a sense-organ produced by the knowledge of words. Kumarilla divides testimony into human and superhuman. The former is the testimony of 9 trustworthy persons while the latter is the testimony of the Vedas. The former is valid if it is uttered by persons of trustworthy character, while the latter is valid in itself. Authority may either give information as to the existence of objects or give directions for the performance of some action. The Mimamsa is primarily interested in the impersonal authority of the Vedas because the Vedas give directions for performing sacrificial rites. The Vedas are looked upon as the book of commandments. According to most of the pro-vedic schools, the authority of the Vedas lies in their being the words of God. But Mimamsa, who does not believe in any creator or destroyer of the world, believes that the Vedas like the world are eternal.

MAIN BODY:
According to Mimamsa, the Vedas are eternal and authorless. It is not the work of any person, human or divine. The sages are only seers and not authors of the Vedas. The Veda is not composed or spoken by God. According to the Mimamsakas there is no God and hence vedic statements are impersonal. Therefore the vedic commandments can never be contradicted by any source of valid knowledge. There can be no inner contradictions in the veda itself. Hence the vedic testimony is valid in itself. Prabhakara recognizes only the vedic testimony as the real testimony and reduces human testimony to inference because its validity is inferred from the trustworthy character of the person speaking. The Mimamsa system furnishes several arguments to prove that the Vedas are impersonal.

They argue that if the Vedas had any author, his name should have been known and remembered because they have been in constant use and have been passed down by an unbroken series of successive generations of teachers and learners from unknown antiquity. To defend the eternality and the authorless nature of the Vedas, the Mimamsakas put forward the theory that words and meanings as well as their relation are all natural and eternal. A word (sabda) is constituted of two or more letters and is a mere aggregate of letters and not a whole, though the letters must occur in a particular order. A varna is regarded as an articulated sound. It is eternal, omnipresent and integral. A varna is eternal and immutable. The infallibility of the authority of the Vedas is founded on the fact that they are not vitiated by any defects to which the work of imperfect persons is subject.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS:
To know the authority of vedas, we need to know the development and existential truth aspect related to the almighty which is established in the vedas which talk about the promulgation of this metaphysical and ontological world- about the god, i.e. God, which is: (1) Omnipresent- it could be understood as the fact that the god is in possession of all the knowledge of past, present and future events and happenings of the universe; the knowledge is proper, pure and unlimited in nature. Then, we have the (2) Omnipresent- it could be understood as the fact that the god is present everywhere in the universe, the god is thereby, an all-pervading entity. In addition to these, we are incorporating the idea of (3) Omnipotent- it could be comprehended by the fact that the god is having all the potency, complete power and because of this, the almighty is having the full control of the universe. God is (4) Eternality- which could be further broken down into the aspect that, the god is immortal, no limited by space and time, has no beginning or ending. With this, we also have the concept of (5) Infinity- the ultimate reality is infinite and endless; it is not constrained by any restrictions which are not created by his wish and is therefore, benevolent, and not limited by anything.

CONCLUSION:
Although the testimony of the reliable person also is accepted by the Bhatta school as a valid source of knowledge, still 10 the vedic authority has special credibility since it will never be contradicted by any pramāna. The order in which the words occur in the literary works is determined by their authors and therefore the works are subject to defects. But the order in which the words occur in the Veda is self-determined and therefore intrinsically valid. Advaita Vedanta begins its theory of the criterion of knowledge by an examination of criteria of the other Indian systems. Sankara, following Nyāya, admits perception, inference and verbal testimony as means of valid knowledge.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy

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